Literacy and Written Language Disorders
Support for dyslexia and other challenges with reading, writing, and spelling
Learning to read and write can be challenging for some people. These literacy problems may be due to a written language disorder.
A written language disorder occurs when a person struggles with the skills needed for reading, writing, or spelling. Unlike speech and language, which is typically learned without direct teaching, reading is a skill that must be taught. The skills involved in learning to read can be impacted by skills related to speech and language.
Whether you or your child have dyslexia, another type of reading disorder, or a writing disability such as dysgraphia, this guide will explain the different aspects of a written language disorder. Learn the signs of reading or writing problems and how a speech therapist can help.
4How we develop reading skills: The Reading Rope
5What causes reading and writing disorders?
6What are the signs of reading and writing problems?
7How are written language disorders treated?
8How does Expressable assess and treat written language disorders?
93 tips for parents: How to help your child with reading, writing, or spelling problems
Understanding reading
Reading is the act of turning written symbols, like letters, into words and understanding what they mean. It involves:
Recognizing words: Knowing what the word says by sounding it out (decoding) or remembering it by sight (sight word recognition).
Understanding sounds: Figuring out how the letters in the word match the sounds we speak.
Reading smoothly: Reading without pausing too much, at a good speed, and with the right expression.
Getting the meaning: Using what you know about the words, grammar, and the topic to understand what the text says.
This is how our brain combines letters, sounds, and knowledge to make sense of written language.
Understanding writing
Writing is the act of sharing ideas, thoughts, or information using letters, words, and sentences. It involves:
Thinking about what to say: Deciding the message or story you want to communicate.
Organizing your ideas: Putting your thoughts in order so they make sense to the reader.
Using words and sentences: Choosing the right words and forming sentences to express your ideas.
Following writing rules: Using correct spelling, punctuation, and grammar to make your writing clear.
Checking your work: Revising and editing to improve how your message sounds and looks.
This is how people turn their ideas into written text that others can understand.
Understanding spelling
Spelling is the process of writing words correctly by matching the sounds (phonemes) of spoken language to the letters (graphemes) of written language. It involves:
Hearing and identifying sounds: Recognizing the individual sounds in a word (for example, the sounds /k/, /a/, and /t/ in the word "cat").
Matching sounds to letters: Knowing which letters or combinations of letters represent each sound (e.g., "c" for /k/, "a" for /a/, and "t" for /t/).
Arranging letters in the correct order: Writing the letters in the right sequence to form a word.
Spelling requires knowledge of sound-letter relationships, memory, and awareness of spelling patterns and rules.
How we develop reading skills: The Reading Rope
Learning to read and write involves a combination of skills that work together like strands in a rope. The Reading Rope model, developed by Dr. Hollis Scarborough, shows how these skills intertwine to support fluent reading. Reading fluency refers to how accurately someone can read, with appropriate speed, pronunciation, and inflection.
Skills in the upper strands include:
Background knowledge: This refers to existing knowledge you have on the topic you’re reading about. Background knowledge helps you better understand the text.
Vocabulary: Knowing vocabulary words helps you understand what you’re reading.
Language structures: Language structures refer to syntax and semantics. Syntax is how words are placed together, essentially in patterns, to create phrases and sentences. Semantics refers to the meanings of words, parts of words, phrases, and sentences.
Verbal reasoning: This is the conclusion you can make from a written text (also called inference). It also refers to the ability to understand metaphors.
Literacy knowledge: Literacy knowledge is about print concepts. This includes things like identifying single letters vs. whole words, reading left-to-right and top-to-bottom, understanding how written words correspond to spoken words, and identifying the empty spaces between words. It can also refer to understanding that there are different types, or genres, of books or stories.
Skills in the lower strands include:
Phonological awareness: This is the ability to identify and manipulate units of oral language, such as words and syllables.
Decoding: Decoding is the ability to break down words by sound and read them.
Sight recognition: This refers to remembering words and recalling them by looking at them quickly. This is a big part of fluent reading.
When all these strands intertwine, a person can achieve skilled, accurate, fluent reading and writing, with strong comprehension.
What causes reading and writing disorders?
A written language disorder can be due to a variety of factors, including language-based causes and external and internal factors. Let’s take a look at what those might be.
Language-based causes involve challenges with foundational language skills. For example, a person might struggle to recognize sound patterns (like rhyming). They may have a hard time remembering which sounds go with specific letters, or understanding how words fit together in sentences. These skills are critical for learning to read and write.
External factors are environmental influences, like limited exposure to books or inadequate teaching. For instance, if a child doesn't have chances to practice early literacy activities, it can delay their development. Socioeconomic challenges can also play a role by limiting access to books or tutoring.
Internal factors include biological components. Genetics can play a role. For example, if there’s a family history of reading difficulties, a child may be more likely to experience them, too. Neurological differences, such as how the brain processes language, can also contribute to these challenges.
What are the signs of reading and writing problems?
While this is not a complete list, here are some signs of a written language disorder by age:
Preschool age
Does not recognize sound patterns in songs and books (e.g., recognizing and then generating words that begin with the same sound)
Difficulty recognizing letters of the alphabet
Does not copy simple lines or shapes
Early elementary level
Difficulty making judgments about phonemes (e.g., selecting which of three words begins with a different sound)
Trouble matching sounds to letters (e.g., the letter D sounds like /d/ in the word “dog”)
Difficulty reading and retelling a story in the correct order
Trouble writing short stories or journal entries
Does not write uppercase and lowercase letters
Difficulty spelling common words correctly (such as “sat,” “play,” “best”)
Later elementary level and above
Trouble with morphological awareness (e.g., sounds out prefixes and suffixes in separate units, like “walkED” instead of “walkt.”
Difficulty identifying the text’s main idea and key details
Trouble planning to write, including difficulty researching a topic and taking and organizing notes
Uses more grammatically unacceptable sentences than other people their age
Difficulty with spelling
How are written language disorders treated?
Treatment for written language requires an interdisciplinary approach. This means a variety of professionals will work together to help a person achieve success. Speech therapists are a vital part of this team. The team can also include reading specialists, occupational therapists, special educators, learning specialists, physical therapists, and “English as a second language” teachers.
Speech therapists are uniquely qualified to assess, treat, and support children and adults with written language disorders. Therapists design holistic, functional treatment plans tailored to each person's needs and goals. These plans not only address the specific challenges the person faces but also involve their family, which helps the person make more progress.
Literacy intervention should target all areas of difficulty. For example, some people may need help with decoding (reading) and encoding (spelling) at the sound, syllable, or word level. Others may struggle with higher-level skills such as understanding or writing sentences. While therapy may focus on specific skills, it is vital to teach these skills within the context of authentic and meaningful language use whenever possible.
To achieve this, therapists often use multiple evidence-based approaches to target different skills at the same time. These approaches might include phonological awareness activities, direct instruction in spelling rules, reading comprehension strategies, and guided writing exercises. For instance, a therapy session might combine teaching of letter-sound relationships with a practical application, such as writing a story or summarizing a passage.
Examples of treatment strategies and methods include:
Graphic organizers
Dialogic reading
Teaching story grammar
The writing lab approach
This integrative approach helps people not only develop their reading and writing skills, but also learn to use them in real-world situations. By addressing the full spectrum of language and literacy needs, speech therapy gives people the tools to overcome challenges and achieve greater independence and success.
However, these treatment plans are not created by the speech therapist alone. Progress in speech therapy is rooted in the person’s motivation to achieve their goals, as well as their commitment to practicing what they learn. Shared decision-making among the client, therapist, and other team members is essential. That’s why we involve our clients in the therapeutic process as much as possible.
How does Expressable assess and treat written language disorders?
If you have concerns about your or your child’s reading, writing, or spelling skills, online intervention with Expressable can be a convenient and affordable option. Our speech therapists focus on the underlying language skills, such as those explained above, that contribute to reading and writing success. They will assess your or your child’s overall language development and cognitive abilities in order to provide a well-rounded, personalized treatment plan.
Expressable matches families with a certified speech therapist trained to evaluate and treat written language disorders. All therapy is delivered online via face-to-face video conferencing.
The person’s age and development will influence how the speech therapist interacts with them through these video sessions.
Ages 0-3: Caregivers work directly with their child's speech therapist to learn strategies they can use at home. That way they can confidently practice with their child outside of sessions to help improve their skills. Learn more about the importance of parental involvement in children’s speech therapy here.
Ages 3-6: Caregivers attend video sessions alongside their child so they both learn valuable skills from their speech therapist. Reinforcing these lessons outside the session will continue to promote at-home skill building.
Ages 7 and up: Most children attend video sessions independently, but parents are kept in the loop with updates and tips during each session.
Adults: Adults attend sessions by themselves, but they are welcome to bring loved ones or family members as well.
All Expressable clients have access to our client portal, which features educational Learning Paths covering the strategies taught in therapy sessions. You can access examples, tips, demo videos, quizzes, and more. Plus, through the portal, you'll receive weekly home practice activities tailored to your needs. The more you practice reading, writing, and spelling techniques at home, between sessions, the faster you'll make progress!
3 tips for parents: How to help your child with reading, writing, or spelling problems
Parents play a key role in supporting their child’s confidence and success. By using these tips, you can empower your child with the tools they need to develop strong literacy skills.
1 Make reading a conversation
Talking about stories helps children think critically, make connections, and expand their vocabulary. Here’s how you can encourage meaningful conversations:
Before reading: Look at the book cover and pictures. Ask your child to predict what the story might be about.
During reading: Pause to talk about the characters’ actions, emotions, or motivations.
After reading: Talk about the story’s events, lessons learned, or how it relates to your child’s own life.
2 Read aloud together for fluency
Reading aloud with your child is a great way to improve their fluency and confidence. Use these strategies:
Model, or demonstrate, fluency yourself: Read with clear expression and appropriate pacing. Pause at punctuation. Then, encourage your child to mimic your style.
Choose familiar books: Start with books that are at or slightly below your child’s reading level. Familiar stories allow your child to focus on fluency without being overwhelmed by challenging words.
Focus on understanding: Remind your child that reading fluently is about understanding what you read, not how fast you read. Gradually introduce more complex texts as they improve.
3 Use visual and hands-on techniques
Children often learn better by using multisensory activities. These techniques involve touch, sound, and sight, and they can make reading and spelling more accessible and engaging:
Highlight key words: Use a highlighter to emphasize important words in a sentence.
Cover unneeded text: Focus your child’s attention by covering parts of the page, leaving only the current line visible.
Point to words: Guide your child by pointing to each word as you read together.
Tactile spelling: Let your child write letters in shaving cream, sand, or on textured surfaces to make spelling interactive.
Follow with audiobooks: Play audio versions of books while your child follows along in the physical book, connecting spoken and written words.
Use captions: Turn on captions for TV shows or videos to help your child link spoken words with text.
By adding these tips into your daily routine, you’re helping your child build their skills while creating positive, rewarding learning experiences. Over time, these small efforts can lead to big gains in their literacy abilities and confidence.